Overview • When and why is training necessary? • How should a training program be conducted? • How are training needs determined? • What goes into the design of an effective training program? • What are some of the commonly used training methods? • How can we determine whether training has been effective? Employee Training Why? • Provide knowledge and skills required to perform effectively. When? • New hires (to complement selection) • Change of jobs (e.g., transfer, promotion) • Change to jobs (e.g., new technology; realignment) • Performance deficiencies detected Employee Development Why? • Prepare employees for future positions • Upgrade general skills for personal growth When? • Internal promotion policy • QWL programs • Team building • Developing/changing organizational culture The Training Process Step 1 Conduct training needs analyses Step 3 Review available training methods Step 2 Develop training objectives Step 4 Design/select training methods Step 5 Design training evaluation approach Step 7 measure training results Step 6 Implement training program Needs Analysis Levels of Analysis 1. Organizational Analysis Identification of short- and long-term goals Identification of human resource needs Evaluation of methods of meeting HR needs (e.g., selection, training) Assessment of resource availability Evaluation of support for transfer of training Needs Analysis Levels of Analysis 2. Task (Job) Analysis Identification of: tasks standards optimal procedures Needs Analysis Levels of Analysis 3. Person Analysis Evaluation of individual against standards Identification of deficiencies Identification of causes (e.g., motivation vs. ability) Needs Analysis Levels of Analysis 4. Demographic Analysis Assess the specific training needs of various demographic groups (e.g., the disabled, or those protected by civil rights legislation). Other Common Reasons for Training • Poor performance (without analysis) “They’re not performing, therefore they must need training” • Fad “Everyone else is doing it” • Reward “They deserve it” • Habit “We’ve always done it. Besides, we have a budget for it” Types of Training Programs On-Site Training • On-the-job training • Apprentice training • Coaching/mentoring • Job rotation • On-line help (as needed) Types of Training Programs Off-Site Training • Lectures/seminars • Multi-media presentations • Programmed/Computer-assisted instruction • Simulation • Cases studies/management games • Role-playing • Behaviour modelling Selection and Development of Training Methods Factors to Consider 1. Purpose (based on needs analysis) Common objectives include Information acquisition Skills development (e.g., motor, interpersonal, problem solving, decision-making) Selection and Development of Training Methods 2. Principles of Learning i. Motivation to learn Relevance and meaningfulness Adequate preparation & self-efficacy Choice/participation (e.g., time, content) Clear goals Reinforcement ii. Feedback iii. Opportunity to practice Factors to Consider Selection and Development of Training Methods 3. Transfer of Training Facilitated by: Similarity of setting and task Overlearning Teaching of general principles Reinforcement of transfer Factors to Consider Selection and Development of Training Methods 4. Individual Differences Should accommodate differences in: Readiness to learn Motivation to learn Preferred learning style Factors to Consider Selection and Development of Training Methods 5. Trainer Qualifications Trainers should: Have knowledge of the organization Be knowledgeable about content Be motivated to train Understand principles of learning 6. Cost Factors to Consider Evaluation of Training Criteria (based on Kirkpatrick, 1976) • Reaction Did employees like the training, think it was useful, feel more confident in their abilities? • Learning Did employees learn anything new? • Behavioural Do trainees behave any differently back on the job? • Results Did the training have the desired outcome? Designing an Evaluation Study Issues to Consider 1. Internal Validity accuracy of inference concerning effect of training 2. External Validity accuracy of inference regarding generalizability 3. Construct Validity accuracy of inference about why the training worked Research Designs Pre-experimental Designs • One-group Posttest Only Design T X • One-group Pre-test / Post-test Design X T X Key X = measure T = training R = random assignment Threats to Internal Validity Threats controlled by Random Assignment • History • Maturation • Selection • Testing • Instrumentation • Attrition (Mortality) • Statistical Regression Research Designs Experimental Designs • Pre-test / Post-test Control Group Design R X T X R X X • Pre-test Only Control Group Design R T X R X Key X = measure T = training R = random assignment Research Designs Experimental Designs • Solomon Four-Group Design R X T X R X X R T X R X Key X = measure T = training R = random assignment Threats to Internal Validity Threats not controlled by Random Assignment • Local history • Diffusion or imitation of treatment • Compensatory equalization of treatment • Compensatory rivalry • Resentful demoralization Research Designs Quasi-experimental Designs • Pre-test / Post-test Nonequivalent Groups Design X T X X X • Alternate Treatments Design X T X X X X T X Key X = measure T = training R = random assignment Research Designs Quasi-experimental Designs • Time-series Design X X X X T X X X X Key X = measure T = training R = random assignment Time Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x x x x training occurs x x x x Threats to External Validity Examples • Interaction of testing and treatment • Interaction of setting and treatment • Interaction of history and treatment • etc. Threats to Construct Validity Examples: • Placebo effect • Hawthorne effect • Pygmalion effect Evaluation of Training: An Example Purpose: Evaluate the effectiveness of behaviour modelling as a training technique Source: Latham & Saari (1979) Evaluation of Training: An Example Focus of Training: • Orienting new employees • Giving recognition • Motivating poor performers • Correcting poor habits • Discussing potential disciplinary action • Reducing absenteeism • Handling a complaining employee • Reducing turnover • Overcoming resistance to change Evaluation of Training: An Example Length of Training: 2 hrs/wk for 9 weeks Training Procedure: • Initial instructions (learning points) • Videotape of model • Role-playing • Feedback • Monitoring and reinforcement Evaluation of Training: An Example Research Design: • Participants were male first-line supervisors • Randomly divided into two groups Experimental (training) Control (waiting list) Evaluation of Training: An Example Dependent Measures and Results: • Reactions - Survey of attitudes immediately following training & 6 months later - Ratings were found to be uniformly high • Learning - Multiple choice test administered 6 months after training - Exp’t > Control • Behaviour - Role playing 3 months after training - Exp’t > Control • Results - Performance appraisal (standard and BOS) - Pre-training: Exp’t = Control - Post-training: Exp’t > Control
